This class is designed to give the history, culture, and geography of the New Testament that existed just prior to and including the time of Jesus and His discplies, as well as the beginning of the Church. In order for us to better understand who Jesus was and what the Bible teaches about Him and his context.

Other interesting links: background Rome1 Rome2 Jewish Encyclopedia Israel

Maps: map1 map2 map3 map4

Introduction and background of the New Testament

Throughout the time of the New Testament, and 600 years of the Old Testament, Israel has been a conquered nation. God said that He would bring their enemies against them if they turned to idolatry. When they did turn to idolatry during the reign of the Kings of Israel and Judah, God brought them into captivity. First with the Assyrians, then the Babylonians, the Persians, the Ptolemy and the Seleucus empires, Greece and finally Rome. The Israel of Jesus’ day had been an occupied territory since 626bc. God returned them from exile back to Israel after the 70 years of Babylonian captivity of 586bc and they began to rebuild Jerusalem under Ezra and Nehemiah. The temple was rebuilt but not to its original grandeur as it was under King Solomon. The nation of Israel didn’t even follow or teach the Torah. One of the main problems was that the Spirit of God was not present in the temple. The belief was that only under the Messiah was the Temple to be rebuilt, not ungodly rulers.

Not all Jews returned to Jerusalem and many were assimilated into other pagan cultures. Whereas, Hebrew was the language of orthodox Jews who were Hebraists, some Jews adopted the Greek language and culture and were called Hellenists. Many Jews reacted to this secularization through revolt and were called Zealots, or nationalists, similar to the revolt of the Maccabees around 166bc. A desert community known as the Essenes also rebelled against 1st century Temple worship.
After the Maccabean era, Israel became divided under the Hasmoneans. Other classes of Jewish leaders also arose such as the Scribes (writers of the Law), Pharisees (the separated) and the Sadducees (the righteous), as well as local Rabbi’s (teacher). People assembled in synagogues Gr. (assemblies). Political struggle began between the two religious parties. The Sadducees were more Hellenistic and the Pharisees were Hebraists. A man named Herod stepped into Israel’s history to bring about stability through an alliance with Rome. Thus the influence of Rome in 63bc! A nation divided cannot stand! Rome was to rule Israel by dividing it into provinces and governing it through local procurators and proconsuls and the army, in return for taxation.

The Israel of the past saw their king as being God’s agent to enforce a theocracy, and refused to bow down to any other king. After many years of occupation some fought against their enemies and longed for the coming of a messiah who they believed would conquer the occupying heathen, reinstitute temple sacrifices and return Israel to its once glorious past. Unfortunately, the temple system had become corrupt under Roman influence. The Sadducees who were the high priests of the day were more political appointees then spiritual leaders. The king of the day, Herod, whose Roman title was “king of the Jews,” was also a politically appointed ruler by Rome and many in Israel refused to be led by him. Not to mention that Rome taught that “Caesar was Lord.” For orthodox Jews of Jesus’ day, following an ungodly king was considered to be idolatry, because there is no king but God. The time was ripe and expectations were high for the coming of a messiah when Jesus showed up on the scene.

What wasn’t considered about a messiah was that maybe he would have issues with the leaders of Israel and not Rome. After all, people might lose their wealth, political influence and even occupations and the religious thought of the day may have to change. They expected a messiah of their making, not God’s. The religious ruling council was called the Sanhedrin which had its members from both religious parties and some were Herodians.

Certain socio-economic conditions existed in the time of Jesus. Slavery was common because of poverty and there were basically 2 classes of people, the rich and the poor, there were very few middle class. As a result of poverty many were driven to crime. Tax collectors were bought positions and they were very wealthy. The priestly families were also very wealthy and even many rabbis. Other classes of people were those who had trades such as farmers, fishermen and stone masons / carpenters. A lot of money was made through exchanging of money, especially connected to temple sacrifices, usually at a profit. Wealth was erroneously looked upon as a blessing from God. Many of the poor and those with illnesses were kept out of temple worship.

Four basic languages were spoken; Latin, Greek, Aramaic and Hebrew. Education was private not public and was taught through tutors. Jews were taught from the scriptures at synagogues. Emperor allegiance and polytheism was prevalent and encouraged and many temples were erected where food was dedicated to gods and then sold. Paganism and various occult practices were very prevalent. Philosophies such as “Gnosticism” flourished, emphasizing that matter was evil and spirit was good and that one needed a “special knowledge” in order to understand this. Other philosophies existed such as; Epicureans, Stoics, Platonists, Cynics and Skeptics.

The Temple in Jerusalem was the center of Jewish worship. All male Jews were expected to come to the temple at least 3 times a year; during Passover, Pentecost and Tabernacles. The temple court was divided into 3; the outer court, inner court and the holy place. The temple building proper was divided into the holy place and the Holy of Holies. The holy place was entered into by priests every day to fill the altar of incense, showbread and menorah. The Ark of the Covenant resided in the Holy of Holies behind a thick veil and the high priest was the only one allowed behind the veil during the Day of Atonement. During Jesus’ day the Holy of Holies was empty.

I believe that one of the most misunderstood topics in the Bible among Christians is the teaching on the Law, or the Torah. What exactly does the Bible mean when it speaks of the Law and what is its relationship to the believer as a result of the New Covenant?

The Law was introduced through Moses on Mount Sinai after the children of Israel crossed the Red Sea and entered into a “covenant relationship” with God (Ex.19, 20). What most are familiar with are just the “ten commandments.” The fact is that there were hundreds of other laws that were given through Moses, approximately 613. Not every law applied to every individual. Some laws dealt with sacrifices, temple worship in Jerusalem, the priesthood, holy days, women, men, children, food and covenant society. The Law was only enforceable on those who were in a “covenant relationship” with God and who were the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, otherwise known as the “children of Israel.”
What most people think of when they read about the Law in the Bible are the animal sacrifices. The fact is that animal sacrifice was NOT the original intention of God and was NEVER able to take away sin (Heb.10:4). It was ONLY after the children of Israel sinned by making a golden calf that God instituted animal sacrifice for the expressed purpose of reminding Israel of their sin of idolatry and to have them renounce that sin (Gal.3:19).

So what did Jesus mean when he said these words: Matthew 5:17-19 "Do not think that I came to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I did not come to abolish, but to fulfill. 18 "For truly I say to you, until heaven and earth pass away, not the smallest letter or stroke shall pass away from the Law, until all is accomplished. 19 "Whoever then annuls one of the least of these commandments, and so teaches others, shall be called least in the kingdom of heaven; but whoever keeps and teaches them, he shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven.”

Certainly Jesus was NOT teaching against obeying certain commandments, because he continues in the Sermon on the Mount with instructions on following at least the 10 commandments and more. In fact, He makes following them even more stringent (Mat.5:20-48, chapters 6 and 7).

So what was the reason and affect of the death and resurrection of Jesus and its impact on the Laws instituted through Moses and what obligations does it have on the Christian today and those who are a part of a New Covenant?

The idea of a “New Covenant” is first spoken of in (Jeremiah 31:31-34). It is echoed throughout the New Testament, first at the Last Supper during Passover, and then throughout the apostles’ writings, especially in the Book of Hebrews.

The idea was that the Temple sacrifices of the Old Covenant were a “type, symbol, or foreshadowing,” of a final sacrifice that would restore and finalize the requirements of the original intention of the Covenant, through the death of a messiah, or suffering servant, seen in Psalm 22 and Isaiah 53. This messiah was to be the “son of David,” and “son of Joseph,” symbolizing the suffering of Joseph, Jacob’s son. As Christians we believe that was fulfilled in Jesus. Jesus being God through His death ended the Old Covenant (Rom.7, 8).

So how did Jesus’ death and resurrection fulfill and affect the requirements of the Law?

We are still responsible to follow the moral portions of the Torah, just not the sacrificial laws, food laws, priesthood requirements, or anything relating to the Temple. As Gentiles we have been “grafted in” and are now able to be a part of a New Covenant (Romans chapters 9, 10, 11). Our High Priest and Mediator of our Covenant is Jesus (Heb.4:14, 8:6). Instead of circumcision as the sign of the covenant, “Baptism” now saves (I Pet.3:21). Salvation is now available to the whole world through the New Covenant.

Theological Background
Understanding the concept of Covenant

To understand the Bible you must understand the idea of “Covenant.” The Bible is a story about a family; this is why there are so many genealogies in it. But it is more than just a story of a family; it is a story of a “Covenant” that is made with a people by God.

What is a Covenant? A Covenant is more than a “contract.” It is a sacred kinship bond. A covenant cannot be revoked; whereas a contract can. A covenant ends upon the death of those in the covenant (Rom.7). A covenant involves more than just a transfer of property; it is a transfer of people. A covenant needs a mediator, or priest, it involves worship (sacrifices and offerings) and a Temple.

The Bible can be divided into 6 Covenants
1. Adam (mediator / priest / king) – Marriage covenant – animal sacrifice as a foreshadowing - the Earth is God’s temple and the Garden of Eden as the Holy of Holies.
2. Noah (mediator / priest) – Household covenant – animal sacrifices - the Ark is a type of Temple.
3. Abraham (mediator) – Tribal covenant – circumcision – no earthly Temple, just altars.
4. Moses – (Priests as mediator) – National covenant – sacrificial system - the portable Tabernacle is the Temple.
5. David – (King as mediator) Kingdom covenant – the Temple is built.
6. Jesus – (King, Priest and Mediator) New Covenant a Universal Covenant – Substitutionary sacrifice of Jesus - we are the “Temple of the Holy Spirit (I Cor.3:16).”
Our High Priest and Mediator of the New Covenant is Jesus (Heb.4:14, 8:6).

The Jewish people had always seen themselves and their identity as “people of the Covenant.” They were defined as those whose history was tied to a covenant between them and God. God demanded obedience to the Torah in order to be a part of the Covenant.

What does it mean to be “people of the New Covenant?”
Israel and the Church are considered to be “betrothed” to God (Rom.9-11) and Jesus is our bridegroom (II Cor.11:2, Eph. 5:22-32). This is why that whenever the children of Israel worshipped other gods they were accused of adultery. The book of Hosea is a perfect allegory of this relationship.
The “New Covenant” was first prophesied about in (Jer.31:31). It is further explained in (Heb.8:8, 13, 9:15, 12:24). At the Last Supper Jesus initiated the New Covenant through His death and resurrection demonstrated through the Passover (Mat.26:28). Since a covenant cannot be ended except through death of the parties involved, Jesus as God through His death ended the Old Covenant and initiated a New Covenant as a result of his death, resurrection and ascension (Heb.7:25). Jesus is our High Priest upon the throne of Heaven (Heb.8:1, 9:11, 25) representing a “better covenant” based on “better promises” (Heb.8:6-13).
To become a part of the Old Covenant one had to be circumcised as a sign of this relationship and follow the Torah. With the New Covenant, one must repent, obey, and trust in Jesus and His atoning sacrifice and be baptized (Rom.6:4, Col.2:12-14, I Pet.3:21).

Background of the New Testament

Government / Politics

For Rome, Israel was seen more as a strategic piece of land against their enemies to the east called the Parthian and to protect their interests to the south in Egypt, which was a huge source of grain. Rome tried to appease and tolerate Israel and so allowed them to have their separate religion and laws, but when this could not be done they basically evacuated it. But for the Jew, Jerusalem was called the “center and navel of the inhabited earth.” For the Jew, what happened in Israel affected the whole world!
Rome did not set up a throne in Israel because of its political and religious instability, but governed through territorial governors or a monarchs such as Herod and his family, empowered through Roman soldier occupation. They governed through subservient established friendly rulers. After Herod’s death, Rome governed through local procurators or proconsuls. Herod’s sons Philip & Antipas were called ethnarchs and tetrarchs. They were called “friends of Rome, or Caesar,” a title given to Pontius Pilate (John 19:12). The first act of a procurtorial government was to divide the conquered territory into municipal districts, the second was to take a census, determining the rate at which cities could be expected to contribute to the treasury.
Herod would collect revenues to establish public works projects, develop land, and eliminate unemployment. Projects like the rebuilding of the Temple, roads and his various fortresses and cities.
The Jews never considered Roman rule as legitimate. They regarded their gentile occupation as illegitimate, because no gentile could ever own Jewish land.

Church and State

Most Jews could not participate in local politics. Religious institutions were transformed into instruments of the state, like the position of High Priest, or the weak Sanhedrin which was under Herod’s control. Most positions were purchased, like the Sadducees being in charge of the priesthood. In Jerusalem, church and state were one. Jewish law, in many areas of life, governed the conduct of Jews living there.

Taxes

Every Jew was expected to pay a twofold tax both civil and religious which came to 30-40% of gross income. Taxes were applied to men, houses, animals, sales, imports, and exports and collected through Tax collectors. They also had to pay Temple taxes and offerings to support the Temple and their workers. Taxes to Rome were seen as robbery and tax collectors as thieves or extortionists. Costs for maintenance of all the buildings and cisterns and any other maintenance in the city came out of the Temple treasury. Anyone entering Jerusalem to sell was charged a duty tax. Taxes would have been collected during pilgrimages to Jerusalem. Many Pharisees were exempt from paying taxes.

Vocation / Income / Economics

Certain occupations were looked down upon such as tanners, butchers, barbers, physicians, weavers, publican, tax collector, herdsman, and metal workers. Even the priests and high priestly families carried on trade. Because of Jerusalem’s religious importance, income through trade and taxes kept it wealthy, even though it lacked many natural resources. Roman rule allowed many Jews to travel and live in other areas and earn income on various trade routes and city ports. Living standards were modest. Most gained their income from various learned family trades and agriculture such as through fishing, farming, pottery, tailors, rock sculptors, well and cave diggers, maintenance workers, and stone masons / builders. In a small town, a “carpenter” was a revered vocation almost as much as a rabbi. The Greek word used when referring to Jesus’ occupation was not necessarily that of a traditional carpenter as we know it, but that of a skilled craftsman or even artisan who most likely worked in building houses, palaces and other construction. Wood was a scarce commodity and would not have been used as a major part of construction buildings. Houses were made of local limestone, some with thatched roofs. Wood was brought in from other outlying areas and countries, such as cedar from Lebanon to frame the Temple.

The Sadducees, priests, and all temple workers were paid from the church treasury. The Pharisees also felt that they should be paid and separated themselves from anyone who did not pay their tithes and offerings, or paid only part of them. Some were exempt from certain taxes.
Women could sell wool and linen. Tanners took all the hides from the sacrificed animals at the Temple and had to work outside of the city walls because the skins of dead animals were considered unclean. Those who worked with metal and pottery also worked outside of the city walls because of the noise and the smoke. The oil from olives was sold and the different pressings were used for food, fuel, medicine and perfume. It was one of the chief exports in Jerusalem. Baking was primarily done more in the home, except certain families made the showbread for the temple. Certain families also made the incense for the altar of incense. Butchered meat, eggs and cheese were sold in markets. There were also those who carried water and sold it when water was not accessible.

There were those who sold spices, ointments, resins, incense and perfumes. Jewelry, precious metals and stones were sold. There were also barbers, those who cleaned laundry and tailors. Usually similar shops and items for sale were together in certain areas of the city. There were also organized guilds of trades. Temple workers were paid well and daily. The Temple treasury was responsible for giving assistance to the unemployed in the city. There were Doctors in every city and charged for their services. Doctors were considered to be common laborers. Temple doctors and barbers were employed for the priesthood for those taking Nazirite vows, initiation of Levites and purification of those healed of leprosy.

Money / Currency / Trade

The cost of living in Jerusalem was higher than outlying cities. Jerusalem had its own currency the silver Shekel, drachma, and gold Dinarius. Foreign currency had to be exchanged through money changers in order to do business in Jerusalem. There were imprints on the coins in order to identify them. Trade was supervised by local police. Bartering and trading was a main way of buying and selling, but there were also fixed prices on various items. Slave trade existed in Jerusalem. Foreign trade was very important to Jerusalem.

Sanitation

There were many street sweepers because of the laws of cleanliness. The public dump was near the Kiddron Valley in the east where the blood of the sacrificed animals drained into the Valley of Hinnom near the dung gate. It was a place of constant burning. Jesus referred to it as “Gehenna or Hell” (Mk.9:43). It was the place associated with the pagan worship of Molech (II Kgs. 23:10, Jer. 2:23). The city had drains and sewers. They had many cisterns and aqueducts. Many of the larger cities like Corinth even had public toilets. A master of trench digging was responsible for the water supply to the Temple.

Food / Markets

Jews followed Kosher laws of eating, which meant only certain foods were eaten and they had to be prepared a certain way and rules of cleanliness were followed differently depending on where you were or what you believed. Certain foods were strictly prohibited such as: shell fish, fish without scales, pork and meat with blood or milk in it. People ate easily accessible and relatively inexpensive foods such as salted fish, vegetables and herbs from gardens, various fruits, nuts, dates, figs and olives and bread from low grades of wheat and grain, such as barley and corn. They drank beer or wine diluted with water and sweetened their food with honey. Alcohol was safer to drink than many water sources. Red meat was normally only eaten during holy days, and fish on Sabbaths. Israel was known for its date palms and olive trees. The Dead Sea near Jerusalem was a huge source of salt used for food, currency and roads. The soil of Jerusalem was not of the best quality for growing grain.

The soil near Jerusalem was good for olive trees, date palms, figs, corn and grapes. Livestock was also sold in Jerusalem, especially those needed for the sacrifice.

Education

Education was mainly in small private synagogue schools and at home. Mainly Jewish boys were taught to read and write. They studied scripture, which was considered to be the history of the world, which also taught ethics, covenantal community life and about their forefathers. They were instructed about their obligations to the poor, weak, orphaned, homeless and stranger. They were taught the various commandments and doctrines. They were taught to look for meaning of daily and cosmic events alike.
Some continued their education through following various Rabbis. We can see this exemplified through Jesus and the disciples and Paul studying under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). They would take on the “yoke of their Rabbi” (Mat.11:29, 30). Most learned a family trade.

Population / Social Classes / Religious Groups

Jerusalem was considered the city for the Jew. Jerusalem had a population of approx 25-30,000 during most of the year up to 10 times that amount during the various Holy Days. Class divisions were complicated by the regional variations of Israel. It had many rich people living there, as well as priests and Levites, artisans who maintained the Temple, petty traders, and unskilled laborers. The relationship between those who lived in Jerusalem and those who lived outside and came in mainly during feasts was hostile. The outlying rural areas were not in touch with national life and were more accepting of itinerate sages.
Various religious groups existed prior to Jesus. Three groups show up around the 3rd century BC, the Pharisees, Sadducees, Scribes and Essenes. The Essenes were those who separated themselves from Temple worship in Jerusalem believing it was corrupt and set up a community in the desert near the Dead Sea. They dressed differently to distinguish which group they were a part of.
The Pharisees arose in opposition to the Sadducees and numbered around 6,000 in the time of Jesus. The Pharisees emphasized strict adherence to certain purity laws. Both Pharisees and Sadducees saw themselves as the authority on scripture interpretation. The Pharisees believed that oral tradition was just as authoritative as written. They particularly differed on doctrines concerning angels, miracles and the afterlife. They were very concerned about purity laws. The Sadducees were more influential with the upper class and the Pharisees with the middle and lower class. The Sadducees were the ruling party that held the position of High priest and Captain of the Temple, which were more of politically bought positions.
The Scribes were part of the Pharisaic party in the Sanhedrin that were comprised of priests, teachers, scholars and interpreters of the Law and were the bureaucrats and a new upper class that arose in the last centuries BC. They were educated from childhood. They were highly respected and given special places of honor and called “Father and Rabbi.” They were keepers of “hidden wisdom and mysteries” that were not to be taught or spoken except among those who could understand. Jesus criticized them (Mat.23:23). Most likely Paul and Nicodemus were scribes as well as Pharisees in the Sanhedrin.
Strict Judaism was a relatively new phenomenon in Israel due to the past influences of Hellenism / paganism. The Galilee area was only influenced 100 years BC. Many were open to various teachings of rabbis. They would ask itinerate preachers “what must I do to be saved?” because no authoritative source existed. The gospel was resisted in cities where there was a rabbi and synagogue present.
The ruling party called the Sanhedrin of 71 members acted with a measure of freedom to determine internal policy in religion, temple ritual and affairs, and local law. It was comprised of the chief priests, scribes and elders from both religious parties. They also were prominent men of well known, wealthy and influential families. They did not have the authority to carry out capital punishment. They decided matters of civil and commercial law. They collected biblical levies and determined the sacred calendar. The Pharisees and Sadducees took an active interest in religious, social and economic administration and the Sanhedrin represented those views.
The areas of the Galilees were known for their messianic expectations. Galilee gave birth to the Zealot party, who in time took it upon themselves to make decisions for all of Israel.
Slaves and servants of both Jew and gentile existed in Jerusalem.
Jews from Samaria were not considered fully Jewish because they were of Jew and gentile race. Around the 4th century BC they built a temple and worshipped at Mount Gerizim instead of in Jerusalem at Mount Moriah. They only acknowledged certain portions of the OT. Righteous Jews did not socialize with them or go through their city. Jews were not allowed to marry or even to go through Samaria. The word Samaritan was used as a great insult by Jews.
Two prominent Rabbi’s just prior to Jesus were Shammai and Hillel. One famous quote of Hillel was, “what is hateful to yourself do not do to your neighbor. That is the entire torah, the rest is commentary.” But Jesus said the positive, “do unto others as you would have them do unto you.”

Worship / Temple / Synagogues

The Temple in Jerusalem was the center of Jewish worship. It was believed that only there was the presence of God and prayers were clearly heard. The temple that stood in the time of Jesus was part of the “second temple” rebuilt after the return of Jews to Israel 70 years after the destruction of the Temple in 586bc. This is recorded in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Births and marriage records were kept in the Temple. To be a part of the Temple service strict genealogy must be proven.
To impress the Jews Herod began renovations on the Temple from 20BC to around 64AD. These renovations employed at least 18,000 people. Even the priests were trained how to cut and lay stone. Faithful Jewish men were expected to come to Jerusalem 3 times a year, during the main feasts of Passover, Pentecost and Tabernacles. Temple worship was maintained through taxes from every Jew from around the world and through many endowments from around the world. Only those in right standing with the religious authorities were allowed to worship. No persons with any type of uncleanness were allowed in the temple area, which means anyone who was sick, or physically or mentally impaired. Gentiles were also not permitted to enter the Temple areas upon penalty of death.
Much of the buildings on the temple mount area were gold plated. The Holy of Holies had a gold floor and walls. Priests had to minister bare footed. Certain families were in charge of replenishing various items used in worship, such as the bread, incense, oil and curtains. 82 maidens had to produce 2 curtains each yearly. The Holy of Holies did NOT house the Ark of the Covenant in the time of Jesus.

The High Priest was the only one allowed in the Holy of Holies once a year during the Day of Atonement. At the time of Jesus the HP position was a bought government position orchestrated by Herod from 37bc, rather than inherited from Aaron and later Zadok, and was held by the Sadducees. Jews did not believe that the HP was legitimate. At the time of Jesus the Romans kept the HP vestments and only giving them to him during certain holy days, this changed after 45ad. The position of the HP was considered very sacred. Upon the death of the HP all those who were in cities of refuge for accidental murder were released, it was said that his death atoned for sin. It was said that through him God would speak prophecies, we see this in (Jh.11:50-52). The two prominent priestly names in the NT are Caiaphas and Annas (Mat.26:3, Luke 3:2, John 18:13, Acts 4:6). Caiphas was Annas’ son-in-law, Jonathan was Annas’ son.

The next highest position of authority was the “Captain of the Temple” we see this in (Acts 4:1, 5:24, 26). He was a relative of the last HP and was literally his “right hand” man and assisted the HP in his ceremonial duties and in the case the HP died, or was unable to perform his sacred duties, he would take his place. He was to be the successor of the HP. There were also others called “elders and chief priests” who may have been part of the High Priest’s family.

The next is the Priest and then the Levite on the list in authority and rank. Priests began service at age 30 until 50 (Num.4:3, 23). The Priests served one week in the Temple in a 24 week rotation (Lk.1:8, 9) and during Holy Days. They received income from their temple duties as well as any trade they were a part of. There were a number of official duties for priests; those who maintained the temple building, offering sacrifices, worship, vestments, incense, oil, showbread, curtains, various offerings and treasury. The Levite did not offer sacrifices and were usually the temple musicians, police and carried out inferior Temple duties.
After the destruction of the Temple in 70ad, the priesthood ended. The group known as the Sadducees ceased to exist in history, but the Pharisees contributed to the rabbinic system we see today. The Temple was essentially replaced with the local synagogue. Animal sacrifices ceased to be offered, and prayer replaced it as an offering. The feasts were observed, but in an abbreviated form. Jerusalem was no longer the center of religious worship.

Holidays / Calendar

Jewish Calendar

To read more on the Seven Biblical Feasts click on the link below

Biblical Feasts

John's Gospel1 John's Gospel2

Jewish males from around the world were expected to make pilgrimage to Jerusalem during certain Holy Days, specifically during Passover, Pentecost and Tabernacles. Proselytes and gentile “God-fearers” also were obliged to come of their own free will. The normal population would multiply sometimes 10 fold during the holy days up to a million people. They would stay with relatives, on owned property, in certain parts of the city that were designated for lodging, in tents in the dessert surrounding Jerusalem, and in the outlying cities such as Bethany and Bethlehem.
The word for Inn used in (Lk.2:7) was used for a guest room, or upper floors. Many times people would live in the upper level of a house or cave, while animals lived in the lower level. When Jesus was born, it says that he stayed in the part of the house that housed animals because there was no room in the upper portion of the house.

There were 7 major biblical holy days: 1. Passover (Pasach), 2. Unleavened Bread, 3. First Fruits, 4. Pentecost (Shavuot), 5. Feast of Trumpets (Yom Terruah or Rosh Hashannah), 6. Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), 7. Feast of Tabernacles / Booths (Sukkot). A few more holidays were added to the Jewish calendar like Hanukkah and Purim.

Israel and its feasts went according to a “lunar calendar.” Even the Roman calendar was a lunar calendar. The monthly religious calendar month began with the sighting of the “new moon” by two witnesses in the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem. There were 12-13 months with 29 or 30 days in them. A year with 13 months in it is referred to as a “pregnant year,” or what is today known as a “leap year.” There were two “new years;” an agricultural new year beginning in the 1st month of the year Jewish calendar Nissan during Passover and a civil new year beginning in the 7th month of the Jewish calendar Tishri during Rosh Hashanah.

The number of the year is calculated from the first day of creation. For instance, our year 2010 is the year 5770 on the Jewish calendar. Months have a name, but the days of the week are just numbered. The first day of the week is on what we call Sunday and the 7th day of the week or Shabbat is on what we call Saturday. Each day follows a 24 hour period divided into 12 hours for evening and morning. A new day or evening begins at our 6pm and the first hour of the morning is our 6am. According to the Genesis creation account the reckoning of days is “evening and morning” (Gen.1:5).

Marriage / Genealogy / Children / Divorce

Racial purity was of great concern to Judaism in the first century. Those of the royal line of King David, who was from the Tribe of Judah, had a messianic expectation. There were 3 categories of those who could intermarry: 1- the priestly families could only marry within legitimate priestly tribes. 2- those of slight impure lines could marry among the Levites and legitimate Israelite families. 3- converts, freemen and those with severe and illegitimate Jewish lines could not marry into legitimate Jewish lines, but only among others as impure. Only those of pure lines could hold official offices. Children were considered possibly cursed in families of impure lines. Only those of pure lines could be assured of messianic salvation. It was said that when Elijah returned he would establish all pure Jewish lines. You were assured patriarchal blessings and salvation if you were of pure blood, which Jesus and John spoke against (Jh.8:39).

Herod had all of the genealogical records burned and especially those of the line of King David. After the destruction of the Temple in 70ad most other genealogical records were destroyed, other than those kept individually.

Jesus’ genealogical records are recorded in (Mat.1 and Luke 3:23). Each shows a direct line to King David. There are differences in the two records. One difference is that Matthew shows the connection through David’s son Solomon (Mat.1:6) and Luke’s record through David’s son Nathan (Luke 3:31). The reason Joseph and Mary had to return to Bethlehem was that Joseph was of the line King David which was his birth place (Luke 2:4). The city where Joseph lived called Nazareth was known for having most of the citizens from David’s line. The name of the town came from the prophecy in (Isaiah 11:1, 60:21) for the Hebrew word for “branch or netzer,” so the inhabitants were called “netzer-ians.” There were high expectations that from this town would come the messiah. Those from David’s line were considered royal family and participated in bringing the wood to the Temple for sacrifice.

Marriages were considered to be a type of covenant. Marriages usually took place between relatives of a similar tribe. Weddings were held on the third day of the week, our Tuesday, and lasted for a week. We see one example of this in (John 2). The reason being was that on the third day of the week there is a double blessing (Gen.1:10, 11).

Marriages were usually arranged by the father. Women usually were married from age 12 and a half on to an older man, but they could be betrothed before age 12. The betrothal process could take up to a year. The bridegroom would bring an offering or payment to the father of the bride and if accepted he would then go away to prepare a place or home, usually among his father’s relatives, or household. Daughters usually came with a dowry. They were considered betrothed and married even prior to the actual wedding. The bridegroom would come back unannounced to carry his bride away to his father’s house.

Divorce was not common because of the implications. The right of divorce was that of the husband if he found her unseemly, but he had to give back to her the payment received from her father upon the acceptance of the marriage. A wife could divorce her husband or even get an annulment if he did not live up to his duties. The children went to the father upon divorce. The absence of children was considered a great misfortune of even divine punishment. Sons were highly favored. Midwives were used for child birth. All children must be brought to the Temple to register and an offering would be made after 40 days for a son and 80 days for a daughter. Males were circumcised on the 8th day. Special consecration was made for the “firstborn child” (Num.18:16).

Jesus’ views on divorce were even more severe than cultural tradition and even what the Torah prescribed (Mat.5:31, 32, 19:3-8). Marriage was seen as an agreement with God as well, not just humanity. Paul also had views on divorce (I Cor.7:1-16). Jesus and Paul also spoke of the advantages of celibacy for those in ministry (Mat.19:11,12, I Cor.7:7, 25-40).
The Apostle Paul when speaking of wives and husbands spoke of them as being “equally submitted one to the other” (Eph.5:21-33).
Polygamy was practiced usually among the wealthier classes and kings.

Role of Women

Women did not take part in “public life.” When she left her house she was to wear 2 veils to cover her head and face. They were covered more in the city than in the country or while working in the field. To leave the house unveiled a husband had legal rights to divorce her without returning the dowry money. The only time her face was seen in public was at her wedding and only if she was a virgin, not a widow. A woman could not be alone with another man other than her husband in public and always had someone watching over her. A man could not even look upon or greet another woman in public. A woman who conversed with everyone in the street could be divorced. Jesus speaking to the woman at the well in Samaria would have been forbidden! A woman was allowed twice a year during certain holy days to enter the temple area. A small girl was up to age 12 and one day, a young girl was age 12 to 12 and a half, a maiden of full age was over 12 and a half. Up to 12 and a half the father had full power over her in legal rights. She had no rights of possession. Up to age 12 and a half she had no rights to refuse a marriage arranged by her father. Over 12 and a half she had legal rights. A wife’s duties included: grind meal, bake, wash, cook, raise the children, prepare the bed, could work with wool and weaving, prepared her husbands cup, washing his face, hands and feet. The wife was obliged to obey her husband as a master and even call him master. Children were expected to put respect for their father before their mother and wives were to show respect to their husbands.

A woman could not enter the innermost parts of the Temple, but only as far as the Court of the Women. They could not hold the priesthood, or become rabbis. Jewish women did not have the same religious obligations as men, even from study of the Torah, and were considered sanctified through her family. They could participate in synagogue services, but there were lattices to separate them from men. A woman was not allowed to teach. A woman could not be used as a witness in a court of law. Menstruating women could not prepare meals or go certain places without giving notice. Women were homemakers, but were also able to sell wool and linen. Women of higher class rank wore jewelry.

Jesus revolutionized the role of women in culture and ministry by allowing them to be disciples and allowing them to travel with him. He also had women who were financial supporters of his ministry.

Death / Burial

Jews wanted to be buried in Jerusalem in the area that the resurrection and final judgment was said to occur first on the Eastern side of the Temple Mount near the Kiddron Valley. Services could last up to a month. Musicians and mourners were paid to be a part of the funeral procession. They were buried within 24 hours washed and wrapped in linen and placed in a family cave with places for the ossuaries to be placed. A person was laid out on a type of bench slab of stone for at least a year. Afterwards the bones were gathered for final burial and service and then placed in a nitch in the cave wall in a stone ossuary with the persons named etched on the outside of the box. Graves were to be outside of the city walls due to uncleanness of dead bodies. Blood is considered sacred and was buried along with the body if it was on any clothes.

Poor / slaves / disabled / orphans / widows

In Judaism, the obligation of providing for the poor was greatly emphasized. The religious communities provided a social service both private and public. We find in the Gospels a number of people who would beg for alms for food, most of which were disabled. The corners of all fields were to be left for the poor to gather food from. You were not expected to give more than a fifth of your means towards acts of giving. So when Jesus said to “sell all that you have and give it to the poor,” that would have been a very difficult statement, especially to a rich person (Mat.19:16). There was a “poor man’s tithe” given during certain years (Deut.14:28, 29).

There was a chamber in the Temple called the “chamber of secrets” where people would give their almsgiving and it would be given “secretly” to those in need (Matt.6:4).

All widows upon the death of their husband were given the legal right to stay on their property and be supported as long as they stayed unmarried. In OT law, a widow was assured marriage to a kinsman redeemer, within her husband’s family called a levirate marriage, publish a refusal so she could remarry. We see this demonstrated in the Book of Ruth.
Widows as well as unmarried women could also serve in the temple in various capacities which we see with Anna (Luke 2:36-38).
Slaves or servants were also used mainly in the city. If you could not pay your debts you could be made a slave or servant to pay it off only for 6 years. Jewish slaves were to go to Jewish owners.

Shroud1 Shroud2 Crucifixion1 Crucifixion2 Oviedo Spear Whip / Flagrum

The Sanhedrin made of 71 members represented the highest court of the land and decided many civil cases regarding Jews. Trials were never to be held at night. Jerusalem did have prisons. They had the authority to whip fellow Jews and imprison. According to the NT they also had the authority to stone Jews to death for certain crimes (Acts 8:1, 3). Levites formed the police force of the Temple. It was Prefect Pontius Pilate who ultimately sentenced Jesus to death.

Crucifixion was the MO of the Roman government to all non-Roman citizens for capital crimes. Roman citizens could not be crucified, but were beheaded for capital crimes. According to Jewish custom, a crucified person should not be left on the cross dead after sunset. All of the blood of the victim would be wiped up and buried with the victim along with many spices. Upon death a face cloth was placed over their face and linen cloth over the rest of the body.

Sometimes crucified victims would stay alive on the cross for a couple of days, so many times to speed up the process the legs of the victim would be broken and force them to suffocate. Iron nails with wooden washers would be driven into the hand, wrists, ankle, heel, or foot. Sometimes a spear would be thrust into the heart. Drugs mixed with myrrh and vinegar would also be offered to victims to numb the pain (Mk.15:23). Nails from a crucified victim were considered keepsakes and magical.

Scourging with a flagrum that was done by the Romans was a brutal weapon made of a wooden handle and leather strips with led balls on them. It was not meant to kill the victim, but to cause massive bruising and bleeding prior to crucifixion to speed up the process of death.

Religions

Various religions existed during the first century: Judaism, Roman and Greek Paganism / Polytheism, Gnosticism, Greek Philosophy (Epicurean / Stoics) and Zoroastrianism. There were a number of Roman temples of worship at the entrances of many outlying cities dedicated to certain gods, which some had in them women known as “oracles” who would speak for the gods, influenced by vapors. Certain trade guilds were dedicated to certain gods and made their living from them. Paul encountered this many times (Acts 14:13, 17:18, 23, 19:24). There were also temple prostitutes and meat offerings sold in the market that were offered to the gods (I Cor.8:4). There were also “astronomers / astrologers” or “Magi” in the Middle East (Mat.2:1).

Housing

Houses were made mainly of local limestone. Roofs were either supported by larger beams, or thatched roofs. Caves were also used for housing. There were various rooms used for various uses such as cooking and sleeping. Many slept in one room together. You were expected to show hospitality, even to strangers if they needed temporary housing. We see this demonstrated in (Luke 11:5, 6). Only palatial houses had multiple individual rooms.

Weather

No one traveled during the rainy months of September-February. The 3 major biblical feasts occurred during mostly dry months March-September, even though the final feast of Tabernacles may have rain since it begins the rainy season. Shepherds kept their livestock indoors and out of the fields during the rainy months.

Transportation

Walking was the main way of transportation for most people, but ships, horses, camels, donkeys, wagons, chariots and carts were also used. Most road conditions were poor. Roadways were also wrought with bandits, but some main roads were protected, especially during the holy days. Most traveled with family members in caravans for protection.

Language

Three languages were primarily spoken in Israel in the first century; Hebrew, Greek and Latin. Aramaic was also spoken which was related to Hebrew. We can see this demonstrated at the crucifixion of Jesus (Lk.23:38). Jews spoke Hebrew, but they would have known Greek and Latin, but would not have spoken a “pagan language.” The Hebrew alphabetical letters also have numerical value and meaning. Words and numbers had meaning and significance alone and when combined called “Gematria.”

Dress

Jewish men and women would have worn clothes that covered most of their body. Different clothes were worn also depending on if you were a part of certain religious party, or religious positions. Women never went out in public without being covered from head to toe. For men to show ones legs in public was considered to be naked. Only men wore a “Tallit,” or a type of prayer shawl, mantle, cloak, or robe which had tassels or “Tzitzit on the fringes or corners comprised of 4 strands made from 8 fine threads tied in 4 knots representing the name of God and the commandments (Num. 15:38, 39). The NT mentions the Tallit and these fringes: (Mat.9:20, 14:36, 27:35, Acts 7:58, 10:10).

Men were to pray 3 times a day privately or publicly wearing the Tallit covering their head and also wearing the “Tefillin” during morning prayers on their weaker are / left arm, hand and forehead. The Tefillin were 2 boxes worn during morning prayer; one on their forehead and one on the left arm next to the heart, which contained small parchment scrolls with Hebrew Scriptures written on them (Ex.13:1-16, Deut.6:4-9, 11:13-21), and the leather straps on their left arm were in the shape of the three Hebrew letters (sheen, dalet and yodh) representing the “Name of God “Shaddai.” The box that went on the head also had the letter “sheen” on it.

Athletics / Entertainment / Leisure

Herod arranged athletic competitions for Caesar every 5 years. Generally athletic competitions were looked down upon as pagan. The Romans built many amphitheaters for sporting events, plays and mortal combat. There were hot springs in various areas used for leisure and medicinal purposes. The wealthy held many banquets, sometimes during feast days where even the community was invited.

Communication / Mail

Letters were transported by personal carrier, ship and even carrier pigeons. Many materials were used to write on from stone, papyrus, clay tablets, lamb skin and copper. Torah scrolls were normally written on lamb skin.

Natural disasters

All weather and natural disasters were seen as God’s judgment, or good weather for blessing. There were earthquakes, droughts, epidemics, famines and even hurricanes in Jerusalem. It could even snow in Jerusalem during the winter months. Because of the arid climate in Israel, the rainy season from September to March was a necessity.